America is not a better country than it was in the 1950s

There are many people in the United States that claim the country is better today than it has ever been. The country has undergone two centuries of transformation, as people have increasingly gained more and more rights and freedoms, technology has made the lives of all Americans markedly easier, and its citizens have elected its first African-American president only a century after slavery ended. However, despite all this progress, it comes with a significant cost as people are forced to deal with threats like terrorism, unchecked scientific experimentation, and the dissolution of the American nuclear family.It seems that much of the current line of thought in the American public came during the social revolution of the 1960s, when sex, drugs, and rock and roll were used in conjunction with far more important social issues. The social rebellion of the 1960s, along with the unpopular war in Vietnam, gave way to the depressing decade of the 1970s, and the selfishness of the 1980s, whi ch still seem to have the public in its grasp in the quest for empty consumerism. For a look back at a time when America represented the ideals that country was founded upon, one would have to look all the way back to the 1950s.During this decade, America took its place as a respected world leader, family values were still strongly in place, consumerism and technology were used to advance the country and humanity in general, and while there were still threats to the safety and well being of American citizens, there were far fewer threats than each American is forced to deal with today. In evaluating the position of the United States in the world today, it is still a world leader. However, many of the events of recent years have only made the country a target of derision, criticism, and worse, even from its allies.In the 1950s, the world was still reeling from the horrors of the Second World War. America emerged from the turmoil as one of the world’s great superpowers, along w ith the Soviet Union. America was seen as the champions of democracy, responsible for allowing the Allies to win the war and bringing freedom and peace to millions around the world. However, much of this good will and power have been slowly eroded in the decades since, and almost completely removed after the events of the past decade.After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, America had the good will and support of the entire world. However, poor leadership quickly led these same supporters to accuse America of being imperialistic and ignorant. President George W. Bush did little to help dissuade this view, and in fact contributed to America’s decline more than any president since Richard Nixon resigned in disgrace. Though the election of Barack Obama has brought a fair amount of good will back to America, the damage done by Bush is long and lasting.While Christian conservatives supported Bush, his personal beliefs seriously held up scientific discoveries in the way of stem cell research by refusing to support federal funding; he denied social advancements to people fighting for equal rights; he spearheaded a renewed campaign to take away women’s rights; he also was instrumental in creating a new paranoia over immigration, despite being the president of a country made of immigrants; and, the gap between the rich and the poor continued to grow until the country found itself poised on the brink of depression.But, his greatest shortcomings were concerning the war on terror, which needlessly expanded, and his flippant abuse of federal power concerning the privacy of U. S. citizens. For a president that used the word â€Å"freedom† so frequently, he did more than most presidents to take it away from his fellow countrymen. A man who avoided serving in Vietnam, Bush learned none of the lessons and started a war in Iraq that has been compared by many as the Vietnam War of this generation. For someone that touted simple American values and hard work, Bush and his administration did a great deal to hurt America and make it weaker.This is very different than the strong leadership of Dwight D. Eisenhower who used his military experience and knowledge to make sure that America remained strong and vigilant in the postwar world. Additionally, Eisenhower’s presidency also saw the emergence of a modern American system of strong family values that have all but disappeared in recent years. American family values have certainly fallen off since the 1950s, and things like divorce as well as drug use have grown to epidemic numbers.One of the key differences is the fact that couples are no longer staying together, divorce rates have gone through the roof, and the traditional nuclear family no longer seems to exist. According to an analysis of new census figures by The New York Times, married couples, whose numbers have been declining for decades as a proportion of American households, have slipped into a minority in the Uni ted States. The American Community Survey, released in October by the Census Bureau, found that 49. 7 percent, or 55. 2 million, of the nation's 111.1 million households in 2005 were made up of heterosexual married couples — with and without children — just shy of a majority and down from more than 52 percent five years earlier (Hurley). This trend shows that less and less heterosexual couples are choosing to get married, instead preferring to cohabitate and have children without marriage. These figures do not include divorce rates. In the United States, it is widely believed that one in two marriages will end in divorce, though these figures are debatable.This rate has since been revised downward to roughly 43% by the National Center for Health Statistics but was moved back up to around 50% by the Census Bureau in 2002. Most recently, according to the New York Times, it has been revised downward to just over 40% (â€Å"Divorce Rates†). This lower figure could b e due to the fact that less people are getting married, but it cannot be denied that in a society of increasing equality and civil rights, less people are getting and staying married than ever before.This is quite different than the 1950s, when the nuclear family was something that most people aspired to create: â€Å"Nearly all accounts of the 1950s stress the great importance attached to home, family, and children†¦ Indeed, widely read authors and commentators and well-known political leaders in the 1950s all extolled the virtues of a traditional family life. Women’s magazines published a steady stream of articles praising the homemaker and warning women of the perils of trying to combine marriage and childbearing with work outside the home† (Cherlin 35).Today, usually just to make ends meet, parents are often both forced to work, leaving very little room for the simple family activities that were so valued in the 1950s. This leads to a society that is increasin gly more isolated from each other and living with more fear and anxiety than ever before. This has also led to an increase in the amount of drugs that Americans consume, something which was virtually unheard of in the 1950s. The war on drugs was started in the 1980’s helped along by Nancy Reagan’s slogan, â€Å"Say no to drugs.† While this continues to apply to illegal drugs, in the years since Americans have answered with a resounding â€Å"yes† to legalized drugs. This displays how the war on drugs is not really how it sounds and is really a hypocritical creation. Drugs have become a part of the American fabric, and that is no more apparent than the recent explosion of popular legal drugs. Today, Americans use drugs to remedy everything from receding hairlines, to erectile dysfunction, to the boredom of everyday life.Federal regulations are strict in regards to advertisements of such legal drugs like cigarettes and alcohol, but not pharmaceuticals. Ads for various legal drugs seem to be all over the television, print media, and the internet. In America, the war on drugs could really be renamed â€Å"the war on drugs deemed undesirable by the government,† because there remain many, many potentially harmful and addictive drugs in the public marketplace. In 1998, Americans spent $66 billion on these drugs, including $39 billion on cocaine, $12 billion on heroin, $2.2 billion on methamphetamine, and $11 billion on marijuana (ONDCP). During that same year, Americans spent more than $120 billion dollars on legal drugs, not including the staples alcohol, nicotine, or caffeine, and this number has only continued to grow. And while America is fighting a war on drugs that was not even a concept in the 1950s, it is also fighting an open-ended war on terrorism. Few things show the differences between today and the 1950s as the state of international terrorism and the fear it invokes in people. Even in the 1950s, where the U. S.fought i n Korea and there was a constant threat of nuclear annihilation, the level of fear that American citizens felt during that decade pales in comparison to what it feels in the post-9/11 world. The entire country has been in a frightened and angry state, with the threat of terrorism going hand and hand with government intrusion, religious hatred, and economic failure. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, â€Å"fear of terrorism became something of a way of life for government, first responders, and many citizens, even though no additional attacks on the American mainland have occurred† (Smelser 124).The threat of terrorism has not only affected the American psyche, but it has also led to the deaths of thousands of American soldiers who are busy fighting the long wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. And, unfortunately, there appears to be no end in sight for either war, and casualties only continue to mount on both sides. Despite all the international turmoil that followed the Second W orld War, there was always stability and confidence in America.Now that the confidence is eroding, one can only hope that stability can continue to be achieved. The United States was far better off in the 1950s than the country is today. While it had the Soviet Union to contend with, there was hardly more fear than there is today over the faceless and suicidal terrorists that threaten the very fabric of everyday life. In addition to all the added fears, there are not even the traditional support systems to help alleviate any of the anxiety, as family values are at an all-time low.People are choosing to no longer get married and when they do get married, they are getting divorced at a pace that continues to grow each passing year. With the drug epidemic, war, moral decay, and fear in the current America, one can only think back on the simpler and more stable times that marked the 1950s. Works Cited: Cherlin, Andrew. Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981 â€Å"Divorce Rates. † Divorce Reform Page. 2009. Americans for Divorce Reform. 12 July 2009. . Hurley, Dan. â€Å"Divorce Rate: It's Not as High as You Think. † The New York Times. 19 April 2005. 13 July 2009. . Office of National Drug Control Policy. â€Å"What America's Users Spend on Illegal Drugs 1988– 1998. † ONDCP Publications. 4 March 2002. 13 July 2009. . Smelser, Neil J. The Faces of Terrorism: Social and Psychological Dimensions. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007

Department of Veteran’s Affairs’ Health Care Delivery System

In the past few decades, the role of the Department of Veteran's Affairs (VA) as a health care delivery system has raised awareness among health care administrators, veterans, and policy makers alike. The core mission of the VA delivery system is to provide primary care, specialized care, and related medical and social support services to veterans (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). Some of the most common medical benefits awarded under the VA are to veterans who have become disabled by illness or injury in the line of duty during military service. As a result, the VA health care delivery system serves as a safety net because many of the veterans served are psychologically and economically disadvantaged and have a high disease burden (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). In addition, veterans who use the VA health care system have a higher level of illness than the average population, and 60 percent have no private or Medigap insurance. The VA health care delivery system provides many services for veterans, and also contributes greatly in managing health care resources. Research indicates that the availability of federal, state and local government funds to subsidize the care of persons left without services varies by state and community and may not match community need (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). In this way, the VA health care delivery system contributes in managing health care resources because it takes on the strains of existing alternatives. Within this patchwork, the VA health delivery system stands out as a significant, coordinated, nationwide safety net for veterans (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). The VA also cares for small vulnerable populations for whom care is expensive but generally unprofitable in the private sector (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). In addition to veterans with service connected injuries, illness and exposures and former prisoners of war, the VA is legislated to treat veterans with special disabilities of spinal cord dysfunction, blindness, amputation, traumatic brain injury, substance abuse and homelessness resulting from mental illness (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). The VA headquarters manages its networks by setting goals and defining strategies to maximize health care value throughout the nation. Value is defined as balanced performance of five factors: cost, access, technical quality, patient functional ability, and patient satisfaction (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). The VA headquarters also focuses on developing a standardized management and monitoring system that supports risk adjusted comparative analysis among networks (Wilson & Kizer, 1997). These efforts are designed to assure that high quality care is consistently delivered. The VA health care delivery system also plays an important role in transitioning patients from one level to another level of care in the health care continuum. This transitional role can be illustrated through the VA's treatment of serious health problems such as Parkinson's Disease, which currently affects about 1. 5 million Americans who are diagnosed with the disease (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001). Parkinson's disease is a progressive degenerative disorder of the central nervous system, with physical symptoms of tremor, rigidity and bradykinesia (Mitchell et. al. , 1996). It can usually be diagnosed based on the medical history and physical findings. To better address the needs of veterans with Parkinson's disease, in February 2001 the VA announced the creation of six centers specializing in Parkinson's disease (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001). The VA Parkinson's centers also develop training programs for patients, families, students and health care professionals. Additionally, each site conducts a clinical demonstration program for evaluating new models of care delivery for veterans with Parkinson's disease and movement disorders (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001). Furthermore, the VA hospitals are devoted to new research on Parkinson's disease in the development of surgical treatment for late-stage patients for whom medical therapy is no longer effective and development of new medications, which are more effective and have fewer side effects (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001). In this way the VA health care delivery system assisting in the transition of patients from one level to another level of care. Finally, the available research indicates that the VA health delivery system contributes well overall in providing services and managing health care resources. This health care system appears to spread itself over the areas where other health care services are lacking, thus enhancing the quality of care and services provided. As long as market forces dominate the health care industry and state and local funding vary, the stabilizing influence of a national safety net such as the VA health care delivery system becomes more crucial. As improvements in health care become more necessary and evident, the VA system will continue to improve the standards of health care for all veterans. Future analysis of the VA health care delivery system in comparison to other health care delivery systems will assist in evaluating the quality of care offered by the VA.

Heroic Criminals Essay

All throughout childhood we are taught that breaking the law is bad and the people who do are criminals and should be punished. Edward Abbey, author of The Monkey Wrench Gang, and Carl Hiaasen, author of Sick Puppy, alter these thoughts. Both novels focus on adventuresome environmentalists who stir up trouble in means of standing up for their beliefs. Both Abbey and Hiaasen construct higher and natural laws over the traditional justice system that gives characters justification for their actions. Ethically we as humans should not side with these rebellious characters, but the theme is so central in the books cover-to-cover that we, as readers, lose sight of morals as the authors manipulate us to become completely invested in these heroic criminals. With sharp uses of characterization and description, Edward Abbey glorifies the art of law breaking and leaves his readers cheering for the heroic criminals. Throughout The Monkey Wrench Gang, the group of four activists set out to destroy bridges, signs, bulldozers and anything else harming the American southwest. From the very beginning, Abbey illustrates a scene full of the workings of the justice system in his prologue. When describing the ceremony to open the bridge he states, â€Å"the bridge stands clear and empty except for†¦a symbolic barrier of red, white and blue ribbon stretched across the bridge from rail to rail† (3). If the sense of patriotism wasn’t evident enough through images of children eating ice cream cones and people drinking Coca-Cola before that, Abbey drapes the bridge in the colors of our nations flag. His portrayal of the project seems to be adored and almost sponsored by America. He uses the writing technique of verisimilitude throughout the prologue to captivate readers and make them anxious to see who disapproves the project. This is a true introduction and welcoming to rebellious characters. As the novel progresses, we become familiar with the gang: Hayduke, Bonnie, Seldom Seen and Doc, as they are driving through billboard signs. Some readers might lose respect for the characters because their actions seem hypocritical and pointless. Their actions are against the law. But then Abbey slowly develops the characters and gives them justification for these criminal actions. He does this with Hayduke criticizing the construction of bridges, â€Å"They can’t do that; it ain’t legal. There’s a law against it. A higher law† (27). The phrase â€Å"higher law† justifies the gang’s destruction because they are taking a stand to save the environment, the beautiful American southwest. As destruction projects get bigger, we find ourselves rooting for these criminals because they are heroes. And we find ourselves captivated in the novel with Abbey’s clever use of an episodic plot. He arranges plot elements into a story and although we aren’t deep into the character’s lives, the focus on episodes drives us forward. As Abbey slowly develops the protagonist characters, he introduces the character, Bishop Love, who we as readers coin as the antagonist. Once again Abbey manipulates our morals as we begin hating the character who could possibly bring down our rebels. Bishop Love exclaims, â€Å"We might get them on the Mann Act come to think of it-crossing the state line for immoral purposes† (296). The fact that the Mann Act was first established to regulate prostitution across state lines cleverly draws us against the bishop’s character and law in general. Abbey’s use of an actual law brings the entire chase back to reality as we still see ourselves siding with the heroic criminals. Abbey actually creates this chase into a war and the heroic criminals become heroic war veterans. As the chase continues, Hayduke once again defines this higher sense of law and justification for war, â€Å"I sat in that rotting jungle every night, playing with my chain, and all I could think about was home. And I don’t mean Tucson†¦I thought about the canyons† (359). This is a very lively twist on the patriotic term war because when we think of war we think of Americans going into another country. Here, Americans are in a war in America against other Americans. And because of this, someone is breaking the law or going against the law. As true as that statement is, we find ourselves naming the criminals as the war heroes through Abbey’s manipulation. Although in the end these heroes are captured and the project seems to be brought to an end, the denouement proves to serve poetic justice. The epilogue consists of Doc, Bonnie and Seldom being almost immediately bailed out of jail, Bishop Love in slow recovery, and the survival of the most prominent environmentalist, Hayduke. Such a fitting ending for our manipulated beliefs. Similarly to Edward Abbey’s manipulation of our morals through characterization and development, Carl Hiaasen uses the same techniques within the theme of criminal heroes. Right off the bat, we meet Twilly who is the definition of activist. We quickly learn that if he doesn’t like something, he takes immediate action. And it’s not with anger that he takes action, but disappointment, â€Å"†¦if I was really pissed, I would’ve done it on a Monday morning, and I would’ve made damn sure my uncle was inside at the time† (19). This is in response to his therapist asking if the reason he blew up a bank was due to the fact that he was angry his uncle made a loan to some â€Å"rotten people† (18). We aren’t really introduced to the proper sense of law as we were in The Monkey Wrench Gang, but such grotesque images of the characters in political positions make us see them as the bad guys and the person who blows up a bank as a hero. More grotesque images develop as we learn about Robert Clapley and his Barbie dolls and Palmer Stoat and his trophies. So even though we want to hate the main characters, we hate who Hiaasen wants us to hate more. With this manipulation technique and Hiaasen’s rapid tonal shifts between parallel characters, we find ourselves not being able to put the novel down. He creates a sense of higher law that gives us a place to go and pretend we’re there with Twilly being a heroic criminal and activist. Hiaasen also does not overstep his boundaries with this sense of higher law as characters are able to resist destruction. In the scene where Twilly and Desie are driving behind a lady in a Lexus who threw her cigarette butt out the window, Twilly wants to put her car up in flames, but he lets off (219). Although we are already on Twilly’s side, the fact that he can resist gives him more respect as a â€Å"criminal. † Once again, in the reader’s eyes, what makes him a hero is how Hiaasen develops the negative characterization of characters like Clapley, Gash and Stoat. In a very grotesque scene between Clapley and Stoat, Stoat explains, â€Å"The important thing is, that nutty kid is finally out of the picture. And, oh yeah, Desie and Boodle are OK, too. Not that I give a shit† (360). Immediately after this is said, â€Å"Clapley finds himself gazing past Stoat, at a dancer performing in a nearby booth†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢if only she was taller’† (360). As illustrated, Clapley and Stoat are both sick people and we want them to be punished and destroyed. We are pulling for Twilly to torture them and win. The novel takes shifts towards a focus on the greed of politics where nature is just a victim and Twilly is standing up for it. In another beautiful example of poetic justice, the epilogue is used as a framing device to bring the novel full circle. In one example, the novel begins with Stoat hunting a rhino and ends with him being impaled by one (429). The ending of our other hated character, Robert Clapley, comes full circle as his most prized possessions, Katya and Tish, become, â€Å"†¦a trademark symbol; this order to include but not expressly be limited to such oral and visual depictions as ‘Goth Barbies’, ‘Undead Barbies’, and ‘Double-Jointed Vampire Barbies’† (445). This is a direct occurrence of what Clapley didn’t want to happen and we find ourselves giggling about the fact. The sense of the novel as a political cartoon truly adds to our enjoyment as readers and superb justification of higher law and love for heroic criminals. In conclusion, both Abbey and Hiaasen create a new definition of criminal through manipulating our morals in their development of characters and justifying it with the sense of a higher law. Adventuresome environmentalists deface and destroy many things, yet we find ourselves as readers cheering for them to do so and get away with it. Ethically we should not side with these rebellious characters, but we truly are completely, 100% invested.

Financial Markets Efficiency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Financial Markets Efficiency - Essay Example Therefore, this form suggests that if everyone is aware of the price records, it is of no value. However, many financial analysts acquire profits by evaluating pas prices using technical analysis including pointing price policy or moving average technique, which according to this form has no value (Horne, 1990). Semi-strong form of market efficiency says, â€Å"Current prices have influence of all the information that is publicly available† (Williams, 2005). All the information takes into account the annual reports of the company that is â€Å"balance sheet and income statements showing the status of assets and liabilities of the company and telling about the revenues, expenses, and income of the company† (Fleming, 2004). It also encounters the payment of dividends, announcement of merger plans, upcoming macroeconomics expectations pertinent to inflation and unemployment (Fleming, 2004). It needs not only to be financial but every aspect that is responsible for adding o r subtracting value to the company. It can also be about the behavior of management with employees, the competence of research and development department, quality of the products and perception about the company in public’s mind. ... One needs to make a deep research to gather all the information, which is helpful in determining the current prices and getting profitable returns. The strong form of market efficiency does not only have impacts of public information but it also opts for information inside the company that is private information. Strong form is different from semi-strong form in a way that it does not want anyone to acquire profits even when public is not aware of the trading information at that time (Bollen & Inder, 2002). In simple words, it means that even the management and other important organizers of the company that is insiders should not be able to acquire profits on company’s shares. As insiders have knowledge about profitable shares, so they should not acquire these shares after few minutes later they make the decision. Additionally, the members of R & D department should not get profits on information they discovered half an hour ago. The objective of strong form of market efficien cy is that markets should possess abilities of anticipating in an impartial manner. However, this form of efficiency is very difficult to achieve as greed for money and other monetary rewards can persuade ones inner light and convert it into flesh. The question arises that why is there a need of efficient market. A market has to be efficient otherwise; investor’s money would go nowhere. An efficient market is one where all the information influences the prices of shares. Market has to be â€Å"large and all the information should be available to investors regarding a company’s financial conditions† (Bollen & Inder, 2002). In this kind of market, transaction costs should be less than the opportunity cost of investment. Opportunity cost is the

Use valid academic sources to illustrate the proximate causes for the Research Paper

Use valid academic sources to illustrate the proximate causes for the massive downturn of the U.S. economy 2009 - Research Paper Example What is however, significant to note that the crisis created a kind of contagion effect on other sectors of the economy also and started to take deeper roots in terms of creating recessionary pressures on the economy? During the last quarter of 2007, US officially went into the recession and official response from US government started to emerge. US took massive action in terms of supporting the failing institutions and government injected tax payers’ money in order to ensure that the whole financial system of the country should not collapse. This also included separate responses from the different actors of the State including The President, Congress, Treasury as well as the Fed Chairman while working in their official capacity. As discussed above that the original cause of financial crisis was the busting of asset bubble wherein the subprime mortgage portfolio of the banks started to get worse. Over the period of time, banks started the practice of lending to subprime borrowers- borrowers with impaired credit history- in order to earn higher returns. Most of the banks however, also securitized their mortgage portfolio and subsequently repackaged their loans and sold them in the form of mortgage based securities. (Cocheo. 2007). The real issue started to emerge when the subprime borrowers started to default and the banks have to divert their own funds to payoff their obligations on the mortgage based securities. This mismatching of the cash flows therefore created the credit crunch for other sectors of the economy and slowly started to engulf the whole economy. The apparent reason may be the subprime mortgages however, underlying this crisis, many critical weaknesses of the regulatory environment of the country. It is generally argued that the overall regulatory environment of the developed countries was so relaxed that the firms took undue advantage and started to adapt the business practices which were risky and put the entire

The Role of Natural Capital in the Week versus Strong Sustainability Essay

The Role of Natural Capital in the Week versus Strong Sustainability Debate - Essay Example The issue of sustainability is therefore subject to both traditional and contemporary arguments, the underlying interest being to define the natural world in the view of both arguments. The weak versus strong sustainability debate emanates from both environmental and economic concerns. A sustainable development is one that is rooted on the strongholds of both the economy and the environmental. In this regard, two principle concepts emerge. These are: natural and manufactured capital. The debate surrounding these two concepts gives rise to weak versus strong sustainability debate, with the role of natural capital being the focal point in the debate. The defining variables of both weak and strong sustainability are essential to consider in the evaluation of the role of natural capital in the context of the two. Sustainable development is defined as that development that provides the potential and ability to meet present needs without jeopardising the potential and ability of future gen erations to meet their own needs (Hartwick, 2007, p.972-974). In other words, the needs of both present and future generations are central to the achievement of sustainable development. It is important to note that the needs referred to are cultural, social, economic and political in nature. ... The process to sustainable development is not a smooth process. There are biases associated with sustainable development, each of which influences the process in one way or another. These biases include: tragedy of the commons, common costs, private profits, uncertainty, future discounting among others (Pearce, 2006, p.85-101). A number of phenomena are presented by the highlighted biases. Common ownership of resources is evident, exacerbating the need to grab resources within the shortest time possible. Industrial pollution is inevitable in land, air and water. Furthermore, the cost of pollution is transferred to the society, while profits are reaped by privately owned enterprises. The process of sustainable development is therefore highly characterized by externalities, both positive and negative. Uncertainty continues to encompass economic and environmental undertakings prior to sustainable development. Global warming around the world remains evident, but its extent is uncertain. There are underlying ecological and/or economic disasters that need to be accounted for in sustainable development process. It is also argued that sustainable development is primarily concerned with the future. While this is true, the present must be set in a way that aids concern for the future. The availability of resources today does not guarantee the same availability in future. Utilization and conservation of resources for the present and future generations yields the weak versus strong sustainability debate, with emphasis on natural capital today and in future. Natural capital is defined as the capacity of the environment to provide goods and services for use by the population (Pezzey, 2009, p.26). The population in this case

Personal Philosophy in Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Personal Philosophy in Education - Essay Example It is this therefore my opinion that schools should administer comprehensive physical education programs for the reasons that I will be highlighting in this paper. Physical Education has a very critical role to play ensuring that students receive wholesome education. A wide body of research for is available to show the effect that movement for instance is of great importance to the education of the mind and body. It has a direct contribution in developing physical fitness and competence as well as helping learners make wise decisions and appreciate the value of physical activity to life. Physical education impacts positively on the academic learning and physical life among students. An active and healthy learner for instance has a higher motivation, alertness and chance of being successful. Play has been found to correlate positively with the development of cognitive and motor abilities and as such is very important especially during the preschool years as well as primary education. As the child enters the adolescence stage, physical activity could greatly improve confidence, positive self-concept and capability to handle challenges intellectu ally, socially and even emotionally. Throughout the years of schooling, administration of a quality Physical Education program enhances social cooperation and competencies of problem resolution. By administering Quality Physical Education Programs in our schools therefore we assist learners develop skills that affect their health for the rest of life. Through implementation of Physical Education Programs in the school setting, the student body, school and society benefits a lot. Physical Education is the only educational program offering students practical opportunities through which they can develop motor competencies, be physically fit and appreciate the health benefits of leading a physically active life. Prevention of diseases, acquisition of skills for safety and

Ebay e business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Ebay e business - Essay Example usiness technology plays an imperative part by which organisation can customise its broad assortment of products or services, enhance productivity, raise customer satisfaction and attain superior competitive position among others. With the emergence of internet and different forms of web-based technologies, huge differences can be observed between traditional and international electronic marketplace. Through this technique i.e. e-business, majority of the companies are capable to determine their potential opportunities and comprehend the necessary skills and human capital that are required to grab those opportunities in an efficient manner (Thomson Reuters, 2013). The primary purpose of this research study is to reveal the role of technological advancements in the modern e-business environment. Moreover, the rationale of this study is also to identify the scope of e-business for the modern organisations. With regard to the present business context, the modern organisations tend to conduct their business operations with the help of internet or executing e-business technologies. It has been apparently observed that majority of the organisations perform their respective business or operational functions under dynamic, rapid changing and highly competitive environment. With the help of e-business technology, these organisations are capable to understand their overall marketing scenario and indentify opportunities towards attaining long-term sustainable growth. Therefore, it is quite essential to understand how e-business technology supports today’s business organisations in efficiently conducting their respective operational activities (SAGE Publications, n. d.). Through this study, it would be quite easy to understand about which way companies utilize e-business techniques while developing business models, implementing strategies and making effective delivery of products or serv ices. This study also shows how international companies operate its overall business

Social psych Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social psych - Essay Example In this study, the participants were presented with stimuli such as exposure to positive Black situations and negative White situations. The participants’ perceptions were then assessed before the stimuli and a day after the presentation. The results of the experiment that participants who were subjected to â€Å"positive Black and negative white† situations had lesser level of prejudice but their â€Å"explicit racial prejudice† remained the same. President Obama can be regarded as positive African American example, and his electoral win could effect change on attitudes toward African Americans. This is the presumption and has to be proven through a review of the literature and of past experiments by researchers. But the literature cited in Bernstein et al (2010) also cited that stereotypes and prejudices do not succumb to change so easily (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990 cited in Bernstein et al, 2010), which could lead to the conclusion that Obama’s electoral vic tory may not change people’s perception after all. Or, there could be varied perceptions and attitude change as a result of the election. But the authors also cited that there could be positive attitude change with Obama’s electoral victory. 3. General methodology Bernstein and associates (2010) conducted a research study on 40 undergraduates of psychology, performed on two sessions to represent the pre-election and post-election periods. It was therefore divided into Time 1 and Time 2, to design two attitudes for explicit and implicit. The first period was completed during the seven days before election. The participants were made to complete a test known as â€Å"Attitudes Towards Black† (Brigham, 1993 cited in Bernstein et al, 2010). The scale was marked on 1-7, and statements were addressed on perceptions of prejudice or equality towards Black people. Example: â€Å"Black and white people are created equal.† Following this, participants were also made to complete the â€Å"Implicit Association Task†, which is about evaluations on social categories. The participants were also evaluated using the â€Å"Implicit Racial Bias† test. 4. Basic results The results were analysed by determining the implicit prejudice, which was done by subtracting â€Å"the average response latency on compatible trials from the incompatible trials† (Bernstein et al. 2010). The IAT result stated that if there was a big different in the score, called the IAT effect, the participants had greater bias towards Whites as against Blacks. This was compared with the results after the election in which a t-test sample was obtained on the IAT result. It was found that the IAT effect was smaller after the election; meaning the IAT effect was reduced after Obama’s electoral victory. The stats revealed that the mean and standard deviation are M = 330.35, SD = 219.93, after the election, compared to M = 494.70, SD = 307.95, before the electio n. 5. Major conclusions One of the striking results of the study by Bernstein et al (2010) is that implicit associations changed while the explicit prejudice changed, after the election in which Obama had a commanding victory. President Obama’s victory changed the perceptions of the general population towards African Americans. President Obama’

Sudan Scenario Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sudan Scenario - Research Paper Example Indeed, the entire human social existence is dependent on these issues; hence, it is typical for people to resist any efforts that are made to achieve a resolution (Maiese, 2006). In fact, parties to these conflicts often refuse to compromise or provide room for negotiation with respect to the said intricate matters (Brewer, 2007; Kinnvall, 2004). As a result, either party of the conflict maintains a rigid stand of the other because of the view that failure to do so would threaten their existence. The parties may develop a mutual fear of one another and an intense desire to inflict as much psychological and physical harm on each other as possible (Staub, 2004; Paris, 2001; Maiese, 2003;). Maiese (2006) points out that the gradual effect of these feeling of being under constant threat and hostility from the either group often occupies the daily lives of the parties involved in the conflict and as a result, supersedes their ability to identify any shared problems they might have. Over time, the conflict escalates resulting to the embedment of the facts about the problem within a larger set of identities, beliefs, cultures, and values (Paris, 2001). Additionally, conflicts concerning money, land, or other resources of economic importance begin to take a symbolic shape in amongst or between the parties under dispute (Kaufman, 2001). Maiese (2003) observes that as the conflict progresses over time, the original issues that may have ignited the conflict become immaterial as new causes for dispute are generated within the conflict itself. As a result, the individuals on the opposing side begin to regard each other as foes and may engage in extreme violence. Eventually, Ramsbotham, Miall, and Woodhouse (2011) opine that the parties become unable to resolve the various issues and seeing that there is no forthcoming solution of the conflict, they chose to go to war with a mindset of either winning or losing in the

Nurse Roles & Functions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nurse Roles & Functions - Essay Example Alternatively, nurses also play instrumental roles in CQI by ensuring that they follow the prescribed rules and systems set by the healthcare organization. Nurses must also improve their service provision approaches to avoid errors experienced in the workplace. The various types of organizational hazards encountered while working at a local hospital entail injuries, accidents, inadequate equipment and congestion (Vincent, 2010). The preventive strategies that should be implemented to prevent workplace-related injuries include the provision of safety gears like gloves, cleaning the wards and the procurement of more equipment. The safety issues in health care, such as prevention of blood borne illnesses is to ensure that nurses use gloves when attending to patients (Vincent, 2010). The prevention of needle stick equipment is by disposing all the used syringes at the correct dump bins where children and other people cannot access them. The prevention of back injury can be handled by avoiding carrying of heavy items or placing medical equipment at places where others cannot overstretch to reach them (Vincent,

Driving Force of Regionalism Essay Example for Free

Driving Force of Regionalism Essay To what extent and in what ways have the driving forces of regionalism in South-east Asia changed since the end of the Cold War? Regionalism has become a trend in many regions of the world. Among them, Europe, North America and Asia (Asia Pacific region) are crucial ones. Some observers argue that the world order have been divided between these three regions with the existence of the European Union (EU), the North American Free trade Agreement (NFTA) and The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). This divergent part of the world requires comprehensive realization to make sense of how they have developed throughout history. In particular, writing the history of Southeast Asia remains a challenge as it involves the understanding of ‘societies that often took quite different view of the past †¦(and) a region where the implications of that historical tradition may have a political significance’[1]. Clapham notes that it is even more challenging to analyse foreign policy making in Southeast Asia region[2]. The early 1970’s was a significant period for the states in this region as it was during this time that five countries decided to join together and define their position in the Cold War between two superpowers and claimed their neutrality. The fact that ASEAN has come up with such a policy is interesting to look at as it gives not only an insight of the driving forces of regionalism in Southeast Asia but also how these developing states saw themselves and formulate their foreign policy in the post-Cold War period. This paper aims to analyse ASEAN’s behaviour in order to access to what extent regionalism has changed since the end of Cold War in Southeast Asia. In that, regionalism would be conceived as ‘a state-led or states-led project designed to reorganize a particular regional space along defined economic and political lines’[3]. The discussion is divided into four parts. The first part discusses the useful theoretical insights of security community to explain why ASEAN states cooperate in the midst of new security challenge in the region. The second part identifies the diplomacy of ASEAN during the post-Cold War period. Given the confine of this paper, the discussion specifically examines the event of the Spratly Islands and the creation of ARF. In the concluding section, achievements and prospects for ASEAN will be addressed. The central argument that this paper advance is that regionalism in Southeast Asia has changed and the changes have been  driven and constrained by the security condition during the post-Cold War era where a regional power vacuum is found. ASEAN emerged from the Cold War as a regional organization in 1967. With the accession of Cambodia, it seemed to be fulfilling the aspirations of its founding fathers to expand membership to include all ten Southeast Asian countries. However, with the end of Cold War and the settlement of Cambodian conflict, ASEAN is facing a new challenge related to issues of security and stability in the post-Cold War regional environment[4]. According to the Bangkok Declaration of 1967, the goal of ASEAN is to ‘accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region; to safeguard the political and economic stability of the region against big power rivalry; and to serve as a forum for the resolution of intra-regional differences’[5]. The formation of ASEAN should be seen as a means of maintaining peace and stability by providing a forum for the discussion and resolution of regional issues relating to security. There are indeed a number of incidents to show that security issue is the major concern of ASEAN such as the call for a Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN), the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation and ASEAN’s role in the Cambodian conflict in the 1980s. However, with the end of Cold War, ASEAN faced a new challenge to its goal when the security environment of South-east Asia was transformed by the change from the old bipolar Cold War security system to the new emerging multipolar system. The new power pattern in the region forced the ASEAN states to cooperate as they realized the security could be in danger if they do not collaborate to improve the situation. This kind of behaviour of the ASEAN states can be best explained by Deutsch’s discussion of security communities. This was especially evident in the study of regional integration and some scholars argued that the concept of security community provides the most useful framework to analyze ASEAN regionali sm. According to Deutsch, a security community is a group that has become integrated and accompanied by formal or informal institutions or practices in order to assure peaceful change among members of a group over a long period of time[6]. Essentially, members within the community retain their independence and sovereignty. The two attributes of such a community are marked by the absence of war and organized violence. To be more specific, as  Yalem notes, a regional security community is a group of states which have ‘renounced the use of force as a means of resolving intra-regional conflicts’[7]. Deutsch further adds that there should be no contingency planning or war-oriented resource mobilization against other members within a security community. This could be acted as an indicator of whether states have developed ‘dependable expectations of peaceful change’[8]. Furthermore, whether a security community has been achieved can actually ‘be tested operationally in terms of the absence or presence of significant organized preparations for was or larger-scale violence among its members’[9]. When applying the concept of security communities into the study of regionalism, it is import ant to make a distinction between security community and a security regime. Buzan defines security regime as ‘a group of states cooperate to manage their disputes and avoid war by seeking to mute the security dilemma both by their own actions and by their assumptions about the behaviour of others’[10]. Although this seems similar to the concept of security community, there is a major difference in that a security regime refers to a situation where the interests of the actors are both not wholly compatible and competitive. Thus, the resulting relationship is rather hostile and the use of force is hindered only by a balance of power[11]. In comparison, a security community is based ‘on a fundamental, unambiguous and long-term convergence of interests among the actors regarding the avoidance of war’[12]. In this context, ASEAN regionalism is more likely to be conceptualized as the process of building the security community rather than the latter. Although a security community seems to be constructed on the ground of interests and identities rather than the idea of common threat, recent literature sketched by Adler and Barnett stress that a security community can actually be triggered by common threat such as ‘cataclysmic events’[13]. As Adler puts it, the concept of a community is ‘the idea that actors can share values, norms, and symbols that provide a social identity, and engage in various interactions in myriad spheres that reflect long-term interests, diffuse reciprocity and trust, strikes fear’[14]. Furthermore, Hurrell attempts to suggest a series of approaches to study contemporary regionalism. He notes that cooperative arrangements in regional cooperation could serve a number of purposes ‘on the one hand, they can serve as a means of responding to external challenges and of coordinating regional positions  in international institutions or negotiating forums. On the other, they can be developed to secure welfare gains, to promote common values or to solve common problems arising from increased levels of regional interdependence. In the security field, for example, such cooperation can range from the stabilization of a regional balance of power, to the institutionalization of confidence -building measures, to the negotiation of a region-wide security regime.’[15] The concept of security community can be applied to explain the creation and the behaviour of ASEAN. During the time of the Cold War, great power rivalries between the Soviet Union and the US in the region has turned Southeast Asia into a battleground with the regional states being used by the opponents with the attempt to create blocs which support their positions or ideologies in the war. Simultaneously, many states in the region have been oppressed by external powers for centuries and not being treated as a respectable actor in the international agenda. Facing with the same hardship, therefore, they came together and create a region free from external interference. However, with the end of Cold War, the security order in this region is characterized by new factors of conflict and instability and ‘regional policy-makers have expressed misgivings about the strategic uncertainties and conflict-creation potential of a post-Cold War order at the regional level’[16]. Among the regional powers, China, Japan and India are generally being seen as the three leading contenders for influence[17]. For some, the involvement of US in the region as the balance of power is still desirable and the possibility of its withdrawal remains a major worry of the region’s stability[18]. In fact, there are a number of unsolved tensions in the region and most of them revolve around China’s strategic ambitions such as its claims for the Spartly Islands. In responding to the new challenge, the ASEAN states have to reconsider and adjust some of the assumptions and principles underlying ASEAN regionalism in order to contribute to regional security and order embedded in the 1992 Singapore Declaration. In order to examine in what ways the driving forces of regionalism in South-east Asia have changed since the end of the Cold War, it is essential to look at some case studies of ASEAN’s post-Cold War diplomacy: China’s claims for the Spratly Islands and ASEAN’s response Situated in the South China Sea, the Spratly Islands consists of islets and reefs with suspected deposits of oil and gas[19]. The disputes involve China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia and Brunei. Many worried that the dispute will turn into a potential source of armed conflict involving ASEAN members particularly because ‘the likelihood of any agreement on the joint development of the islands involving all the claimants, as proposed by some regional policy-makers and analysts, has limited plausibility’[20]. In view of this, other ASEAN members initiated efforts to address the security issue which was seen as a destabilizing force in the region in the post-Cold War period. Finally in 1989, it was Indonesia alone launched the South China Sea Workshop (SCSW)[21] to promote peaceful settlement of the dispute by emphasizing the lessons of Cambodian conflict and the lessons from ASEAN regional c ooperation. Although the workshop has been extended to include China, Vietnam and Laos in 1991, there were no collective ASEAN position or action on the dispute. The irony lies on the fact that ‘the Spratly seminars are a unilateral Indonesian initiative, resulting from diplomacy not by ASEAN or even a group within ASEAN but by one member country’[22]. The regional community sense was missing in this incident particularly because Malaysia and the Philippines feared that multilateral forum could lessen their negotiating ability thus making bilateral settlements impossible. As a result, they were not willing to support ASEAN to settle the dispute involving other member states[23]. This indicates their determination to uphold national autonomy and also their perspective to view ASEAN only as a confidence-building forum rather than a regional community[24]. Consequently in 1992, China passed a Law on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone of the People’s Republic of China. The aim of this legislation is for China to formalize far-reaching claims in the South China Sea. The assertiveness of China caused doubt over the effectiveness of the previous launched workshops and made ASEAN members realized that China insisted on unilateral means to solve the problem. ASEAN responded to China’s claims with the ‘ASEAN Declaration on the South China Sea’ issued in the same year. The Declaration emphasized the need to ‘resolve all sovereignty and jurisdictional issues pertaining to the South China Sea by peaceful means  without resort to force’ and it urged all parties ‘to exercise constraint’[25]. It has been pointed out that ASEAN has claimed some success by placing the dispute on the agenda of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) with the support of intense lobbying[26]. At the same time, ASEAN has been criticized for failing to negotiate codes of conduct in that China continued to carry on its bilateral agreement with Vietnam in 1993 and Philippines in 1995[27]. However, in a bigger picture, it made clear that all AS EAN members has developed a respect for the codes of conduct enshrined in the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation on issues relating to peaceful settlement of conflicts and the non-use of force. Evolution of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) The ASEAN Summit of 1992 declared that ‘ASEAN shall seek avenues to engage Member States in new areas of cooperation in security matters’, therefore, the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1993 which ‘serves as a multilateral consultative forum aimed at promoting preventive diplomacy and confidence building among the states in the Asia-Pacific region’[28]. Through the ARF, ASEAN hoped to create regional order based on its own norms as well as the new norm of inclusiveness which is essential to cooperative security[29]. In this content, the ARF provided a test of ASEAN’s norms as the membership of ARF included all the major powers of the international system whereby the regional order in this region would also base on the inclusive approach meaning that the major powers would engage in the management of regional order. In 1995, the Philippines discovered the incident of Mischief Reef by China while ASEAN responded by issuing a joint statement criticizing China[30]. It seems this stand of ASEAN fulfils the idea of community, however, it is only a partial fulfillment due to the fact that the ASEAN members have different interpretations of the conflict. ASEAN consensus is always revolved around the norms of peaceful settlement of conflict which is being seen as the guarantee for stability. However, they did not identify with the position of the Philippines, for instance, Thailand considered the dispute as bilateral and not a dispute between ASEAN and China. Again, the event actually put a test on the ASEAN member’s ability to come up with a collective position. As Malik comments on the future of the Southeast Asia regionalism, he points out that to maintain  peace in the region, it is ‘not only founded on the stability of a balance but is sourced in a sense of shared aspirations and common destiny’[31]. In view of this, the lack of consensus among ASEAN member states indicated their unwillingness to demand standards of behaviour from China which only reinforced the ASEAN’s partial fulfillment as a community. In general, the post-Cold War period has posed unleashing of conflicts in the Asia Pacific region which were effectively suppressed during the colonial era and the subsequent period of superpower rivalry[32]. With the end of bipolarity, there is a greater potential of conflict. This paper has examined ASEAN’s behaviour in security affairs during the post-Cold War ear with the objective of assessing the validity of the idea of community. Many scholars have widely acknowledged ASEAN’s potential to become a regional security community from both within and outside the region. Snitwongse notes that although ASEAN may not be able to fully achieve self-reliance, its most striking achievement has been community building[33]. Simon claims that ASEAN is perhaps a security community in which no member would consider the use of force against each other to settle disputes[34]. In the aftermath of the end of Cold War, the absence of war among the ASEAN members is indeed being recognized by many as a great achievement. Based on the discussion of this paper, it has proved that ASEAN has developed some of the attributes of what Adler and Barnett call it as a ‘nascent security community’ where a number of triggering mechanisms including threat perceptions, shared identity and organizational emulation are present. After three decades of progress in promoting peaceful intra-regional order, ASEAN faced its greatest challenge since the end of Cold War as the current regional security environment remains in a state of uncertainty. Nonetheless, the prospect of a regional power vacuum implies the possibility of ASEAN’s further progress while the question remains whether ASEAN itself can fill the security gap by mobilizing its collective diplomatic and political resources. Bibliography Acharya, A., A New Regional Order In South-East Asia: ASEAN in the Post-Cold War Era, International Institute for Strategic Studies, Adelphi Paper 279, London, 1993 Acharya, A., Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the problem of regional order, London, 2001 Adler, E Barnett, M., ‘A framework for the study of security communities’, in Adler, E. Barnett, M (eds.) Security Communities, Cambridge, 1998 ASEAN Secretariat, ASEAN: An Overview, Jakarta, 1995 Buszynski, L., ‘Declining Superpowers: The Impact on ASEAN’, Pacific Review, 3/3, 1990 Buzan, B., People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era, New York, 1991 Catley, B. Keliat, M., Spratlys: The Dispute in the South China Sea, Aldershot, 1997 Deutsch, K.W., ‘Security Communities’, in Rosenau, J (ed.) International Politics and Foreign Policy, New York, 1961 Dewitt, D.B., ‘Common, Comprehensive and Cooperative Security’, Pacific Review, 7/1, 1994 Haacke, J., ‘Seeking Influence: China’s Diplomacy Toward ASEAN After the Asian Crisis’, Asian Perspective, 26/4, 2002 Hill, C., ‘Theories of Foreign Policy Making for the Developing Countries’, in Clapham, C. (ed.) Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A Comparative Approach, Farnborough, 1977 Hurell, A., ‘Explaining the Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics’, Review of International Studies, 21/4, 1995 Leifer, M., The ASEAN Regional Forum, Adelphi Paper 302, London, 1996 Payne, A. Gamble A., Regionalism and World Order, London, 1996 Simon, S., ‘The Regionalization of Defence in Southeast Asia’, Pacific Review, 5/2, 1992 Snitwongse, K., ‘Meeting the Challenges of Changing Southeast Asia’, in Scalapino, R., Sato, S. Han, S.J. (eds.) Regional Dynamics: Security, Political and Economic Issues in the Asia Pacific Region, Jakarta, 1990 Tarling, N., Southeast Asia: A Modern History, Oxford, 2001 Tow, W.T., Asia-Pacific Strategic Relations: Seeking Convergent Security, New York, 2001 Whiting, A.S., ‘ASEAN Eyes China: The Security Dimension’, Asian Survey, 37/4, 1997 Yalem, R.J., ‘Regional Security Communities’, in Keeton, G.W. Scharzenberger, G. (eds.) The Yearbook of International Affairs, London, 1979

Quality of Artesian Water | Analysis

Quality of Artesian Water | Analysis Evaluation of the microbiological and physicochemical quality of Artesian well water used for irrigation in ArRiyadh Sulaiman Ali Alharbi1*, M.E.Zayed1, Arunachalam Chinnathambi1, Naiyf S. Alharbi1 and Milton Wainwright1,2 Abstract The quality of water from artesian wells used for irrigation was analyzed. Water samples were collected from 12 wells from different farms along a 8.5 km transect of the Hayer which is an area located approximately 35 km south of ArRiyadh. The major parameters for assessment of the groundwater quality used here were analysis of the major cations (K+, Na+and NH4 +) and the major anions (Cl-, SO42-, NO3- and PO43-). A total dissolved solid (TDS) is a summation of the all major constituents. pH, temperature and electrical conductivity (EC) were also measured as important indicators of groundwater quality. The samples were also tested for the presence of total and fecal coliforms bacteria. All the samples were free from contamination by coliforms bacteria; the physicochemical parameters of the all of the samples were not however, within the acceptable limits prescribed by WHO and FAO. Key words: Physicochemical quality, Artesian well water quality, Irrigation, coliforms, Cations      Ã‚   Introduction Water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater aquifers is an essential human resource and is needed for direct consumption as well as for recreational purposes1. Groundwater is a vital source for fresh water in Saudi Arabia and the surrounding Gulf states2; groundwater being the major source of both potable and irrigation waters in Saudi Arabia. As the population of Saudi continues to increase, especially in the big cities such as ArRiyadh, the demand for adequate and high-quality groundwater resources continues to increase. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (about 2.25 million km2) is one of hottest and most arid countries in the world, with an average summer temperatures of 46oC and an average rainfall of 120 mm per year over most of the country2. The available surface water and groundwater resources is limited, precipitation rates are low, while evaporation is high. With increasing population and agricultural use there is an increasing need for high quality water in Saudi Arabia 3. The total population of Saudi Arabia has increased from about 7.7 million in 1970 to 11.8 million in 1990 and is expected to reach 19 million in 2010, if the present growth rate of 3 per cent per annum continues. Consequently, domestic water demand has increased from about 446 MCM in 1980 to about 1,563 MCM in 1997, and is expected to reach 2,800 MCM in 20104,5. Agriculture accounts for some 88% of water use, while industry consumes only around 3%6. Saudi Arabia faces severe water problems and as a result, is in need of new water policies to achieve sustainable development in its harsh environment. Problems include balancing supply and demand while facing aridity and water scarcity, nonrenewable supplies, poor quality of ground water, poor distribution of supplies, salt water intrusion, and the overuse and contamination of aquifers7. Available water resources in Saudi Arabia are a) conventional, i.e. groundwater and surface water, and b) non-conventional such as desalinated seawater and treated waste water. About 88 percent of the water consumption in Saudi Arabia is met from groundwater supplies2.Groundwater is generally presumed to be ideal for human consumption and is used as a potential source of drinking water, agricultural development, urbanization and industrialization8. Around 47% of the water supplied in ArRiyadh is groundwater pumped from local aquifers9. It is estimated that 18% of worldwide cropland is irrigated, producing 40% of all food. Irrigation water and any foliar applied water, in intimate contact to the developing or mature edible portions of fresh produce, is likely to lead to contamination with human waste, although irrigation using surface water is likely to pose a greater risk to human health than irrigation water obtained from deep aquifers drawn from properly constructed and protected wells10. Water-borne pathogens infect around 250 million people and result in 10 to 20 million deaths world-wide each year. An estimated 80% of all illness in developing countries is related to water and sanitation, with some 5% of all child deaths under the age of five years occurring in developing countries resulting from diarrheal diseases 11,12. Pathogens pose a risk to human health as a result of the various uses of water (Figure 2). For example, it was suggested that contaminated irrigation water was a possible source of a recent outbreak of E. coli across USA13. Fruit and vegetables are frequently contaminated impacted by fecally-polluted irrigation water14. As a general rule, surface water resources are more susceptible to microbial contamination than are groundwater supplies. Microbial contamination introduced through sprinkler irrigation systems may also affect the surface of a crop for varying periods of time, and the risk is increased when the irrigated crop is consumed raw and so metimes unwashed15. Pathogen-contamination of fresh, ready-to-eat fruits and vegetables is a significant issue in agriculture. In many cases, fecal-oral pathogens such as toxin-producing E. coli, Salmonella spp., and norovirus are the causative agents16. Fecally contaminated irrigation water is frequently a possible or likely source of contamination of fresh, ready-to-eat fruits and vegetables17. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)18, at least 12 percent of foods borne outbreaks during the 1990s were attributable to fresh produce, and the economic cost of food borne illness is estimated at around $10 to $83 billion per year19. Water is subject to varying degrees of fecal pollution, and consequently fresh waters are a vector transmission of many pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Fecal pollution can reach water resources as the result of human activities, such as sewage treatment plants and communities where sewage treatment is not available. Many diseases are related to fecal polluted water, but the majority is caused by enteropathogenic microorganisms, and not surprisingly therefore, the presence of enteric pathogens in waters is of considerable concern. For this reason, maintaining the microbiological safety of water is very important issue relating to the protection of public health1. Washing and disinfection practices are less effective against pathogens which in penetrate the plant interior20., and for this reason the prevention of water-borne contamination is considered to be an important primary means of controlling health risk associated with food borne pathogens19. The quality and safety of farm irrigation water determines the quality and safety of the resultant crop, and the safety of water depends on its source. Human pathogens can be introduced into irrigation water via run-off of manure from animal production facilities, from domestic/urban sewage systems or directly from wildlife. Extreme rainfall (which lead to storm overflows), spills of manure, or human waste can all increase the probability of the occurrence of contamination21. The quality of water needed for various uses is determined by its physical characteristics, chemical composition, biological parameters and the conditions of use and all surface or sub-surface waters contain varying amounts of salts which increase in irrigated soil due to evaporation. The aim of the work reported here was to determine the microbiological and physicochemical quality of waters obtained from artesian wells used for irrigation near the city of Riyadh. Materials and methods Description of the artesian wells: The samples were taken from wells of depth ranging from (60-100 m); some wells were open while others were closed. Sampling collection: Sampling: All ground water sampling (chemical or microbial) was conducted with the existing well pumps which were run for a sufficient time (10-15 minutes) in order to replace the old water in the pipes with fresh water and thereby obtain reliably stable readings of pH, specific conductance and temperature. Well water depths were measured with a graduated (l/l00th foot) steel tape. A total of three water samples were collected from 12 different wells located in different farms along a 8.5 km transect of the Hayer, which is an area located some 35 km south of Riyadh, during November 2010. The water samples were collected in plastic bottles, pH, EC and TDS were measured on site; samples were subsequently transported to the laboratory in an ice box. Each sample was divided into three portions; one for cation analysis, one for anion determinations and the third for coliform analysis. The concentration of total dissolved ions, Na, K, P, Cl, S04, NH4 and N03 were determined. The analytical procedures used for these determinations were those described in standard methods or the examination of water and wastewater. The evaluation of the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purpose is based here on the irrigation water specification provided by the Saudi Arabian Standards organization (SASO), irrigation water standards 1993, and water quality for use in agriculture by the FAO (1994). (Table 1) shows the concentration (mg/l) of individual constituents, groundwater, hardness, electrical conductance and pH of the groundwater. Coliform determination: Sample Preparation: The samples were diluted in the range- 10-1 to 10-6 and the original water sample were aseptically diluted into 9 ml buffered peptone prepared in three series. The number of total and fecal coliforms was determined using the MPN method and statistical tables were used to interpret the results. From each dilution, 1ml was removed and added aseptically to triplicate tubes containing 5ml of lauryl tryptose broth (LSB). The tubes were then incubated at 37  °C for 48 hours. Tubes showing color change or gas production were recorded as positive, and the number of positive tubes at each dilution was referred to MPN tables to obtain the number of bacteria present in the original sample. Results and Discussion Microbiological analysis: None of the water samples obtained from any of the wells contained coliforms, a fact which shows that the general sanitary conditions around the wells are excellent. Analysis of physicochemical parameters: Physical Characteristics: Table 1 shows the laboratory determinations used, together with the acceptable range to evaluate common irrigation water quality, as prepared by FAO 1994. Table 1. Laboratory determinations used to evaluate common irrigation water quality problems. Water parameter Symbol Unit1 Usual range in irrigation water SALINITY Salt content Electrical Conductivity ECw dS/m 0 3 dS/m (or) Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/l 0 2000 mg/l Cations and anions Calcium Ca++ me/l 0 20 me/l Magnesium Mg++ me/l 0 5 me/l Sodium Na+ me/l 0 40 me/l Carbonate CO3 me/l 0 .1 me/l Bicarbonate HCO3- me/l 0 10 me/l Chloride Cl- me/l 0 30 me/l Sulphate SO4 me/l 0 20 me/l NUTRIENTS2 Nitrate-Nitrogen NO3-N mg/l 0 10 mg/l Ammonium-Nitrogen NH4-N mg/l 0 5 mg/l Phosphate-Phosphorus PO4-P mg/l 0 2 mg/l Potassium K+ mg/l 0 2 mg/l MISCELLANEOUS Boron B mg/l 0 2 mg/l Acid/basicity pH 1-14 6.0 8.5 Sodium Adsorption Ratio3 SAR (me/l)1, 2 0 15 1 dS/m = deciSiemen/metre in S.I. units (equivalent to 1 mmho/cm = 1 millimmho/centi-metre) mg/l = milligram per litre à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã†â€™ parts per million (ppm). me/l = milliequivalent per litre (mg/l à · equivalent weight = me/l); in SI units, 1 me/l= 1 millimol/litre adjusted for electron charge. Table 2. Physical parameters of analyzed groundwater samples Sample ID Parameters Temperature (Degree Celsius) pH E.C* (ms/cm) T.D.S** (mg/L) Turbidity (NTU) Total Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) A 25.0 8.15 3.87 2476 11.30 1800 B 25.5 8.13 8.89 5689 28.70 3000 C 24.5 8.17 4.48 2867 20.50 1200 D 25.5 7.98 3.74 2393 18.00 1400 E 23.5 8.19 5.49 3513 6.24 1000 F 24.5 8.05 9.41 6022 2.98 2600 G 28.0 8.02 9.19 5881 0.73 2800 H 25.0 7.84 10.78 6899 21.90 3600 I 26.5 8.29 9.41 6022 0.94 3200 J 26.0 8.07 10.29 6585 5.78 3200 K 27.0 8.06 11.13 7123 12.30 3800 L 27.0 8.11 10.16 6502 5.63 3600 * E.C = Electrical Conductivity ** T.D.S = Total Dissolved Solids Table 2 shows the physical parameters of the groundwater samples; the data reveals the following: pH: The pH values of all gr the groundwater samples tested was alkaline (around 8); a pH which is generally not conducive to optimal crop plant growth Total dissolved solids (TDS) : Suspended solids and total dissolved solids (TDS) are indicators of polluted water. The value for TDS of the samples ranged from 2393-7123 mg/l. Most of these values are outside the standard values generally considered to be suitable for irrigation purposes. TDS values exceeding 3000 mg/l are high values for irrigation of some crop types. The high TDS values found in groundwater sampled from the study area are likely to be due to high concentrations of sodium, chloride, sulfate and nitrate. Conductivity: Electrical conductivity gives a measure of all of the dissolved ions in solution. Electrical conductivity values measured in this study varied from 3.74 to 11.13 ms/cm with sample-K exhibiting the highest conductivity (11.13) and sample D the lowest, (3.74). The acceptable limit of conductivity is 1.5 ms /cm22. Generally, the conductivity of clean water is lower but as water moves down the soil profile it leaches and dissolves ions and also picks up organic from the biota and detritus23. Generally the conductivity values recorded for wells sampled here were not within the acceptable limit prescribed by WHO and FAO limits. Total Water Hardness: Water hardness is primarily a measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium, and to a lesser extent, iron in a water sample. Water hardness is measured by summing the concentrations of calcium, magnesium and converting this value to an equivalent concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3); a value which is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of water. Water with hardness greater than 200 mg/L is considered to be of poor quality and water with hardness greater than 500 mg/L is normally considered to be unacceptable for domestic purposes. The analyzed samples for hardness, had hardness concentrations ranges between 1200 to 3800 mg/L been found then the samples would be assessed as belonging to the fourth category with very hard water and unacceptable for domestic purpose without treatment. Cations and anion loads of the groundwater samples: Table 3 shows the cations and anions loads of groundwater samples, the data shows the following: Sodium: An infiltration problem related to water quality occurs when the normal infiltration rate for the applied water or rainfall is appreciably reduced and water remains on the soil surface for long periods, or infiltrates too slowly to supply the crop with sufficient water to maintain acceptable yields. The infiltration rate of water into soil varies widely and can be greatly influenced by the quality of the irrigation water. The two most common water quality factors which influence the normal infiltration rate are water salinity (total quantity of salts in the water) and sodium content relative to the content of calcium and magnesium. Water which is highly saline will increase infiltration, while a low salinity water, or a sample with high sodium to calcium ratio will decrease infiltration; both of these factors may operate simultaneously. One serious side effect of an infiltration problem is the potential to develop plant disease and vector (mosquito) problems. An infiltration problem related to water quality in most cases occurs in the surface few centimetres of soil and is linked to the structural stability of this surface soil and its low calcium content relative to that of sodium. When a soil is irrigated with sodium-rich water, a high sodium surface soil develops which weakens soil structure. The surface soil aggregates then disperse into much smaller particles which clog soil pores. The problem may also be caused by an extremely low calcium content of the surface soil. In some cases, water low in salt can cause a similar problem but this is related to the corrosive nature of the low salt water and not to the sodium content of the water or soil. In the case of the low salt water, the water dissolves and leaches most of the soluble minerals, including calcium, from the surface soil. Analyses of the ground water samples tested here shows that that all have sodium ranges over 500 (mg/L);sodium contents greater than 500 mg/L are normally c onsidered unacceptable for irrigation according to water quality standards used by the FAO for agricultural use. Table 3. Cations and anion loads of the groundwater samples Sample ID Parameters Sodium Na (mg/L) Potassium K (mg/L) Phosphorus P (mg/L) Sulphate SO4 (mg/L) Ammonia NH3 (mg/L) Nitrate NO3 (mg/L) Chloride Cl (mg/L) A 500 17.0 0.53 1437 0 2.0 1250 B 1375 28.0 0.37 3275 0 10.0 2500 C 750 15.0 0.15 1302 0 5.5 1500 D 500 15.0 0.11 1380 0 2.0 1250 E 750 23.0 0.10 1607 0 4.0 1500 F 1500 27.0 0.00 3675 0 3.5 2850 G 1375 26.0 0.33 3275 0 13.5 2500 H 1375 27.0 0.25 2587 0 49.5 3000 I 1125 30.0 0.81 1737 0 138.0 2750 J 1375 27.0 0.00 2987 0 35.0 2750 K 1375 31.0 0.00 3075 0 142.0 3250 L 1125 30.0 0.25 1595 0 158.0 3000 Nitrates: The nitrate content of the analyzed groundwater samples ranges between 2 mg/l in well A and D and reaches a maximum of 158mg/l in well L .Many of the sampled groundwater wells contain nitrate exceeding the guideline values for irrigation water prescribed by FAO (0-10 mg/l), with most of the nitrogen present being probably derived from the biosphere. The nitrogen originally fixed from the atmosphere, is mineralized by soil bacteria into ammonium, which is converted into nitrate by nitrifying bacteria under aerobic conditions24. The main sources of nitrate result from either natural or anthropogenic activities rainfall and dry fall out, soil nitrogen, nitrate deposit, sewage, septic tank and animal waste, manure or compost, green manure and plant residues, atmospheric nitrogen fixation, fertilizer nitrogen from irrigated overflow water outlets and industrial effluent25. Nitrate is the end product of the oxidation of nitrogen in the environment. Particularly high nitrate concentrations indicate pollution from either sewage or agricultural fertilizer waste. Nitrate is without doubt an essential plant nutrient, but is equally a potential threat to human health when present in excess concentrations in the drinking water 26. The data obtained from the samples tested here shows that the ground waters examined contain high level of nitrate, concentrations which exceed the permissible limits for drinking purposes (Table 3). Ammonia: The term ammonia includes the non-ionized (NH3) and ionized (NH4+) species. Ammonia originates in the environment from metabolic, agricultural and industrial processes and from disinfection with chloramines. Natural levels in groundwater and surface water are usually below 0.2 mg/liter27. Anaerobic ground waters may contain up to 3mg/liter. Intensive rearing of farm animals can give rise to much higher levels in surface water. Ammonia contamination can also arise from cement m

Trinidad and Tobago Electrical Regulations

Trinidad and Tobago Electrical Regulations The Trinidad and Tobago Electricity Commission (TTEC) is responsible for the distribution and transmission of electrical energy around the country. The electrical power comes from three main power stations which are Port of Spain (308MW station, Point Lisas (634MW) station and Penal (236MW) station. It is through this system the commission provides electrical power to its customers and meters this energy in order to obtain revenue. However the system is also one of the most vulnerable parts of that companys infrastructure, as they are prone to damage in a myriad of different scenarios. These reasons have caused power companies such as TTEC to lay down some of the strict standards, which we will now be examined in detail. Since this report is concerned with industrial wiring systems, mainly three-phase AC voltage will be addressed. The energy that they supply is only single or three phase with frequency of 60 hertz. TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS Characteristic of Supply TTEC supplies energy with the following declared voltages and characteristics: Single phase, 2 wires, 115 volts used for installation with loads up to a maximum of 30 amperes (A). Single phase, 3 wire, and 115/230 volts for installation with loads up to a maximum of 200 amperes (A). Three phase, 4 wire, 115/230 volts from a delta-connected source for installations with combined lighting and power loads up to a maximum demand of 199KVA. Voltage of 230 across phase wires, 115 between either of two phase wires and earthed neutral, and 200 volts between this third phase wire and neutral. (This third 200V phase wire must be positively identified with the color blue throughout the installation or by whatever means of identification is required by the codes in force. Three phase, 4 wire, 230/400 volts from a star connected source for installation with combined lighting and power loads up to a maximum of 350KVA. One of the following high voltages depending on the maximum demand of the load, location of the installation and the voltage available at the location: Table : High voltage supply 3 phase 3 wire 6.6KV 3 phase 3 or 4 wire 12KV 3 phase 3 wire 33KV 3 phase 3 wire 66KV 3 phase 3 wire 132KV *Accordingly the Commission should be consulted before the consumer makes plans for an installation to be supplied at high voltage. Consumers requiring supplies with utilization voltages other than the Commissions standard voltages as discussed above from (a) to (e) will be supplied at one of the commissions high voltages declared in (e) and are required to provide their own transformers. The Electricity Supply rules made under Section 15 of the Electricity (Inspection) Act Chapter 54.72 provides for variation of 6 percent above or below the declared voltages. As a result a few guide lines are to be followed: 1. The point of supply must be near the face of a building and at the commissions distribution pole. 2. When the appropriate voltage supply is available, the point of supply for an installation supplied at 115/230 or 230/400 volts, must be at the Commissions distribution pole 3. If a transformer must be installed to supply the 115/230 or 230/400 volt then the transformer has to be the point of supply. 4. The point of supply for a consumers installation supplied which is at high voltage will either be the consumers terminals which is connects to the service line or the terminal of the commissions disconnecting means. Provided that the consumer has consulted the commission to determine the location of the point of supply (the point at which TTEC supplies energy) for the new installation, the commission shall provide only one service line to supply a building. The service lines are any electrical conductors through which energy may be supplied or is intended to be a supplied by the commission. These conductors are runs from the distribution main or directly from the premises of the Commission. See figure below. Fig. 1 Typical Overhead Service Line with Consumers Entrance cable on Consumers building Figure : typical overhead service line with consumers entrance cable on private pole POSITIONING OF SERVICE LINE The position of the weather- head or gland at the point of entrance must be placed at a minimum distance of 15cm away from the bash board and not in the direct path of water flow from rooftops and guttering. It must be note also that the Commission only provides one service line to supply a building. The customers point of entrance must not be located directly above a building extension or split roof. The minimum height to which the overhead service conductors are to be connected are 3.7 metres above the finished grade level, or for a greater height it is necessary to maintain it at a minimum height of 6.1 metres for clearance of the Commissions over head service line over roads. Every industrial installation shall be adequately controlled by a manually operable, physically and electrically separated fused main switch or circuit breaker. This disconnecting means shall be readily accessible to authorized or qualified personnel, properly identified and preferably located near to the service conductors as possible. Conductors and Cables Service Entrance Conductors are the portion of the installation between the point of entrance and the consumers main disconnecting device. This generally means it is the customer cable to which T TEC connects to give supply from the service line. The service line is connected to the Distribution main. TTEC service connects only to a single consumers entrance cable at the point of supply to a building. The overhead line service conductors must be connected at a minimum height of 3.7 meters above finished grade level. For height that is greater it is necessary maintain a minimum height of 6.1 meters for clearance of the service line over roads. The entrance cables to the point of supply shall be in either rigid metallic conduit treated against corrosion or other approved non-corrosive enclosures or shall be concentric or tamper-proof cable form the consumers terminals to the metering equipment and should preferably continue to the consumers main switch. If conduit is used, only standard conduit elbows and fittings to facilitate pulling of the cables should be allowed. An approve weather head is required at the consumers terminals at the point of supply and a minimum of 0.5 meters of cable must be left for connection to the Commissions overhead service line. Attachment to the commiss ions conductors shall be made a point no less than 0.3 meters form the weather head. The consumer must also provide and install terminating lugs for connecting to cables with conductor sizes larger than 95mm2. For underground entrance cables, it is preferred that for 115/230V and 230/400V installations, the Consumers terminals at the point of supply be located at a pole furnished and maintained by the consumer. Size of Conductors Conduits And Cables The size of an entrance cable for a building with two or more metered installations supplied at 115/230 or 230/400 volts shall not be less than 16 sq. mm. This cable size is for copper conductors with rubber, polythene or P.V.C. insulation. Other approved cables can be used with equivalent current carrying capacities. The size of every conductor shall be such that its current rating, is necessary, of rating factors appropriate to the type of cables and the conditions of installation, is not less than the maximum sustained current which will normally flow through it. Also the size of the conductor shall be that the voltage drop from the consumers terminals to any point in the installation does not exceed 2.5% of the declared nominal voltage when the conductors are carrying the maximum current under their normal conditions of service. Single core cables armoured with steel wire shall not be used for carrying alternating current MINIMUM INSTALLATION BENDING RADIUS During installation, PVC armored cables should not be bent to a smaller radius than six times the overall diameter for cables having circular conductors and eight times for other armored cables. Every cable termination shall be accessible for inspection and shall be mechanically and electrically sound. The insulation tape or braid shall be removed no further than is necessary. PROTECTION OF CABLES Conductors of cables shall be insulated with the correct class of insulation in accordance with the appropriate standard to withstand a voltage not less than the highest sustained voltage to which they are likely to be subjected. Any insulation damaged by soldering otherwise shall be cut away and replaced by suitable insulation at least as thick effective as the original installation. Termination of cables should not be in locations where flammable and/or explosive dust, liquid, vapor or gas is likely to be present. Otherwise the termination shall be enclosed in a flameproof fitting. For paper or varnished-cambric-insulated, metal-sheathed cable, a wiped metal sleeve or joint box, filled with insulating compound shall be provided. Laying of cables underground Cables underground must be 18 deep buried in red sand (sand bed) surrounded by concrete slabs then covered with red danger tape over the slabs. If the cable is passing under a roadway, the cable must be a concrete duct and must be inspected before being buried. Positioning of transformer and switchgear All service equipment which include transformers, panels, switch gear etc, must have a working space of 3 feet around them, they must be positioned where they are easily accessible to the authority, in an upfront foremost position away from pedestrian travel, if it is pedestrian travel place billards around them to prevent people from crashing into them. Metering Metering can be accomplished through socket type metering or three phase metering, the later being more expensive. Current Type 0 200 Single phase >200 Three phase wiring 200-500 Current transformer metering >500 High voltage metering Generally, a single meter is used to measures all electrical energy supplied at that single location. It records the number of units (kilowatt hours) of electricity you have used and is quite easy to read, and consumption records are simple to keep. The Trinidad and Tobago Electricity Commission uses the recorded electricity usage to accurately calculate the consumer electrical bill. The three types of meter normally use are the digital, the Dial and the AMI meters. The service entrance cable is connected to the meter. If a splitter box is to be used first splitter box then the meter .If no splitter box is used, then connect only to the meter. Splitter arrangements can also be used to split the load. In metering there are a few regulations that must be followed in connection, positioning and reading. They are as followed: For an indoor-type meter, the consumer shall provide a meter-board for mounting the meter. This board shall be of an approved size, and shall be made from 19mm hard-wood stock, free from knots set plumb, and level and securely fastened for substantial supports In order to make meters more accessible, the tops of the meters should not be greater than 1.8m or less than 1.5m above floor or finished grade level. A clear space of at least 0.9m in front of all meters must be available at all times. Meters should not be located over doorways, along stairways or directly under water pipes or drain pipes. They should also be mounted free from shock, vibrations and mechanical injury. Meter sockets should be installed on an outer wall of the building. In a building elevated more than 2.4m above ground, the meter should be located on one of the supporting columns of the building. Meters for a multi-level building shall be grouped in one location on either the basement or ground floor in an accessible location. Where there are greater than 6-metered installations, groups of at least 6 meters can be installed on the basement, ground floor, or an accessible upper floor. Outdoor socket-type meters shall be installed for single phase 115/230V installations up to a maximum of 200A; meter sockets of the ring less type can be used, but must be provided with an approved means for sealing the cover. Outdoor socket-type meters shall be installed for three-phase 115/230V and 230/400V. Installations with loads up to 200A per phase. Whole current or self-contained socket-type meters shall meter such installations For 201-500A loads per phase, current transformers shall be used. The commission shall install a current transformer cabinet, meter-board and meter cabinet where necessary. The meter cabinet shall have a minimum depth of 25.4cm. Between the current transformer cabinet and the meter board, a 20mm conduit containing three (3) 1.5mm2 red, white and blue, and four (4) 2.5mm2 red, white, blue and black 600V insulated conductors must be provided by the consumer. The conductors should be a maximum 15m in length. Lengths of at least 0.9m must be provided outside the two ends of the conduit to permit the external connections to the meter and current transformer. Three-phase, 115/230V and 230/400V installations requiring loads in excess of 500A per phase shall be supplied and metered at high voltage. The metering unit shall be installed on a Distribution Pole or in the consumers transformer substation subject to the conditions of the supply. Fig. 4 Typical Installation Single Metered Low Voltage Supply Figure : Single meter high voltage supply CIRCUIT BREAKERS A circuit breaker is a device for closing and interrupting a circuit between separable contacts under both normal and abnormal conditions, with selection based on the type of application being either alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc). The established voltage rating of a circuit breaker is based on its clearance or space, between electrical circuits and between electrical components and the ground. Circuit breaker voltage ratings indicate the maximum electrical system voltage on which they can be applied. Circuit breakers voltage must be equal to or greater than voltage of the electrical system on which they are used. Circuit breakers have two types of current ratings; continuous current rating and fault current-interrupting capacity. Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, include: MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)-rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)-rated current up to 1000 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in LV switchboards or switchgear cabinets. Positioning of circuit breaker A circuit breaker in a wet location or outside a building must be enclosed in a weatherproof enclosure. This enclosure must be so equipped as to prevent moisture and water from entering and accumulating within the cabinet. Circuit breakers must be mounted so that there is at least 6.35mmm of airspace between the enclosure and the wall or the supporting surface, with exceptions being metallic cabinets and cut-out boxes which may be installed without the airspace on a concrete, masonry, tile or similar surface. All circuit breakers should be installed at least 2m above the floor or working platform. Fuse A fuse is placed in an electrical current circuit so that when current flow exceeds the rating of the fuse it blows or blows out. The elements in the fuse melt, opening the circuit and preventing other components of the circuit from being damaged by the over current. The size of the metal fuse element determines the rating. Once a fuse blows it must be replaced by a new one. Standards for the Use of Circuit Breakers and Fuses The minimum sizes of main switches or circuit breakers permitted on consumers installation are as follows: Characteristic of supply Minimum Current rating 115 volts, 2 wire, 1phase 30 amperes 115/230 volts, 3 wire, 1 phase 60 amperes 115/230 volts, 4 wire, 3 phase 60 amperes 115/400 volts, 4 wire, 3 phase 60 amperes Table : circuit breaker sizes The consumer shall furnish and install a high voltage circuit breaker at the primary disconnecting means for an installation with a maximum demand in excess of 800 KVA. In a building with more than one separately metered Consumers Installation a metal splitter box with a suitably sized Circuit Breaker for each Installation shall be installed between the Consumers Entrance Cable and the meter sockets by the Consumer/s or Landlord. Provision shall be mode on the splitter box for the Commission to apply its seals or locks. Each Circuit Breaker In the splitter box shall be suitably identified with the Consumers Installation connected to it. Where there are seven or more separately metered Consumers Installations in a building, a main disconnecting means or Circuit Breaker shall be installed between the Consumers Entrance Cables and the group of Circuit Breakers In the splitter box by the Consumers or Landlord. Provision shall be made for the sealing or locking of this switch or breaker by the Commission. Consumer shall furnish and install a high voltage Circuit Breaker as the primary disconnecting means for an Installation with a maximum demand in excess of 800 KVA. The Consumer should conform with the Commissions Specification with respect to the rating and rupturing capacity of the Circuit Breaker. The limits of the Consumers protection setting shall be stipulated by the Commission to ensure discrimination with the protection of the Commissions system. It is recommended that the Consumer maintain an adequate supply of spare parts for the normal maintenance of his circuit breaker and ancillary apparatus. The selection of the type of circuit breaker most suitable for protection of a DC installation depends mainly on the following criteria: The current, which determines the rating of the equipment; The rated voltage, which determines the number of poles in series necessary for breaking; The maximum short-circuit current at the point of installation, which determines the breaking capacity; The type of network. It is recommended that the consumer maintain an adequate supply of spare parts for the normal maintenance of his circuit breaker and ancillary apparatus BRANCH CIRCUITRY A branch circuit is defined as that part of an electric circuit extending beyond the last circuit breaker or fuse. The branch circuits start at the breaker box and extend to the electrical devices connected to the service. Branch circuits are the last part of the circuit supplying electrical devices. These circuits are classified in two different ways, according to the type of loads they serve or according to their current-carrying capacity. Motors The table below show the supplies required for motors with different power rating. Motor power rating /watts Supply 750 and below 115/230, single phase Between 750 and 5.6K 230, single or 3 phase 5.6K and over 230/400, 3 phase For single-phase motors rated between 3.75 Kilowatts and 5.6 Kilowatts it should be arranged for no load starting. Motors of over 5.6 kilowatts must be arranged for reduced voltage starting. The commission will be prepared to consider direct online starting of motors of these sizes where the supply to the consumers installation is at high voltage. Any apparatus having power rating larger than 2.5 KVA can be supplied at either 115/230, single phase. Apparatus greater than 2.5KVA up to and including 15 KVA in size can be supplied at 230 volts, single phase. Any rating larger than 15 KVA in size can only be supplied from a three-phase supply. Single-phase appliances and motors supplied from a 3 or 4 wire installations shall be so connected that the operating current unbalanced would be a minimum. Three phase motors should be protected against single phasing conditions. When the rotor of the motor is locked, the motor requires the highest current. Direct online starters can be used also, if current goes and comes. Plugs Plugs in most residential and commercial establishments do not exceed 150V between conductors on branch circuits. That is, they are usually rated at 15-20A with exception to a 240V circuits. Lighting Lighting circuits usually do not exceed 150 watts to ground. These circuits are usually rated at 15 amperes or less in most homes and commercial establishments due to the fact that at some time during the use of the device the consumer may see the need to replace the fixture. Qualify personnel only should service the lighting fixtures. When installing for industrial purposes the voltage to the ground on the lighting circuit could be as much as 330V. With these conditions incandescent fixtures must be mounted 8 feet or more above the floor or at the available height. Where conditions do not permit 8 feet, then the fixtures should not be readily accessible (i.e. they should be encased, etc). Such a supply would be provided by a 3-phase, 4-wire 277/480V wire system. For public and commercials areas the voltage should not exceed 300V to the ground. Trinidad and Tobago wiring code law states that no final circuit should provide more than 15 lighting fixtures. Type of receptacle Maximum Number of Outlets Maximum Branch Rating (Amps) Maximum Cable Cross-section (mm2) Remarks DOMESTIC Socket outlet other than kitchen or laundry 6 20 2.5 15 A Duplex Kitchen 2 20 2.5 15 A Duplex Laundry 1 20 2.5 20 A Duplex Air condition 1 20 2.5 15 A, 230V Duplex INDUSTRIAL Lighting 6 x 115V 8 x 115V 15 20 1.5 2.5 200VA per outlet Receptable outlets 3 4 5 15 20 30 1.5 2.5 4.0 500VA per outlet GROUNDING Grounding is one of the most important factors involving electrical wiring, it provides safety to personnel, equipment and safety. Standards for Grounding i) All wiring installations shall include a consumers earth terminal or the equivalent to which the following shall be connected by an earth-continuity conductor: All metal work associated with the wiring system including cable sheets, armor, conduits, ducts, and boxes. Exposed metal of apparatus Earth terminals of socket-outlets One point of the secondary winding and of the metal work of any transformer used in the installation, except where the transformer is contained in apparatus ii) The connection to the earth electrode or any other means of earthing shall be readily accessible and soundly made by use of soldered joints or substantial clamps of non-ferrous material and where connection is made to a metal pipe of external diameter not exceeding 100mm, clamps of an approval type shall be used. iii) The earthing lead shall be connected to the line side of the consumers main disconnecting means, to an effective earth electrode buried in the ground, for example a metal water pipe system having metal to metal joints or to a copper strip or rod. Connection to a water pipe shall be made as near as practicable to the point of entry onto the ground. Gas piping or non-metallic water piping shall not be used. Metal frames or portable, stationary and fixed electric appliances operating on circuits above 50 volts to ground shall be earthed in an approved manner. Metal fixtures and lighting equipment installed on outlets wired with grounded multicore cable, with metal raceway, grounded metal-clad cable, non-metallic sheathed cable on circuits operating at more than 50 volts to ground shall be earthed. iv) Socket-outlets and cord connectors equipped with grounding contacts shall have those contacts effectively earthed. The branch circuits or branch circuit wiring shall include or provide a grounding conductor to which the earthing contacts with the receptacle or cord connector shall be connected. The armour of the metal-clad cable or a metallic raceway is acceptable as a ground connector. Equipment shall be considered as grounded where mechanically connected in a permanent and effective manner to metal raceway, the armour of the meta-clad cable, the grounding conductor in a non-metallic or to a separate grounding conductor not smaller than 2.5mm2, provided that the raceway or grounding conductor is itself grounded in an approved manner. v) The earthing arrangements of the consumer installation shall be such that on the occurrence of a fault of negligible impedance from a phase or non-earthed conductor to adjacent exposed metal, a current corresponding to 3 times the rating of the fuse, or one and a half times the setting of the over-load circuit-breaker can flow, so that the faulty circuit can be made dead. Alternatively and in every instance where this requirement cannot be met, an earth-leakage circuit breaker shall be installed. A voltage-operated earth-leakage circuit breaker shall be connected between the consumer earth terminal and a suitable earth electrode. The connection between the earth terminal operating coil and earth electrode shall be insulated. Grounding of buildings and equipment It is standard for all wiring installations to have an earth terminal or grounding electrode. The earth terminal must be connected in the appropriate manner to the circuitry of the installation by means of the earth continuity conductor or the grounding electrode conductor. Where there is a transformer outside of the building there must also be an additional ground connection from the grounded service conductor to a grounding electrode, either at the transformer or elsewhere outside the building. A grounding connection must not be made however, at the load side of the service disconnecting means. Where an installation consists of multiple buildings, a grounding conductor must be made at each building. All the socket outlets and cord connectors in an installation equipped with grounding contacts must have them effectively earthed. The branch circuits or branch wiring must include a grounding conductor to which the earthing contacts shall be connected. As a standard all metal fixtures and lighting equipment installed on outlets wired with grounded multi-core cable, metal raceway, grounded multi-clad cable and non-metallic sheathed cable on circuits operating at more than 50 volts to ground must be earthed. In turn equipment are considered grounded if they are mechanically connected in a permanent and effective manner to a metal raceway (the armour of a metal-clad cable), the grounding conductor in a non-metallic sheath or to a separate grounding conductor not smaller than 2.5mm2, provided that the raceway is itself earthed in an appropriate manner. Switch plates, wiring boxes, conduit, cabinets, and lights Types of equipment that should be grounded All metal work associated with the wiring system including cable sheets, armour, conduit, ducts and boxes Exposed metal apparatus Earth terminals of socket-outlets One point of the secondary winding and of the metal work of any transformer used in the installation with the exception of transformers contained in apparatus. Electric motor frames Equipment needs to be grounded under any of these circumstances: The equipment is within 8 feet vertically and 5 feet horizontally of the floor or walking surface. The equipment is within 8 feet vertically and 5 feet horizontally of grounded metal objects you could touch. The equipment is located in a wet or damp area and is not isolated. The equipment is connected to a power supply by cord and plug and is not double-insulated. Types of earth electrodes Earth mats Earth mats typically resemble a wire mesh. They are used where there are high voltages, and several cables carrying those high voltages (such as in industrial areas). Each of the multiple cables is grounded to the earth mat rather than connecting all these cables to one grounding electrode. They are used mainly in substations and can be placed above or below ground. Earth plates are used to attain an effective earth in shallow soils with underlying rocks or in locations with large amounts of buried services. They can also provide protection at potentially dangerous places e.g. HV switching positions. Copper Earth Rods Copper rods of 20mm or 25mm diameter are used where there are high-resistance earth conditions. It is possible to obtain copper rods with end-on connections where a length may be driven in, the removable hard-steel tip unscrewed, and a further length of rod screwed on. Earth rods take advantage of lower resistivity soils at greater depths than normal excavation will allow. Quality earth rods are commonly made from either solid copper, stainless steel or copper bonded steel. http://tbn1.google.com/images?q=tbn:IODNxco1mtW8xM:http://www.rcoombs.co.uk/earthstake.jpg  [1]   LIGHTING Main types of lighting fixtures used in workshops Tubular Fluorescent Lamps: The high efficiency and relative luminous intensity of such types of lamps results in their extensive use in many workshops. However, fluorescent lamps are highly unsuitable for the lighting of areas containing moving or rotating machinery. The lamps can cause a strobe effect that makes it difficult to observe the movement of the machine and, in some cases, the machine may appear to be stationary. Color Corrected Mercury Lamps: These lamps, when used in conjunction with external reflectors are extensively used in industrial lighting, both inside the building and outside. Incandescent Filament Lamps: The small filament size allows close optical control for directional and local lighting. Glare Reduction- Glare occurs when a light source is seen directly, or by reflection, and is too bright when compared with the general brightness of the rest of the interior. The color of light used in a building should be chosen so as to prevent excessive glare. There are two types of glare, viz. disability glare (which impairs vision) and discomfort glare (which causes visual discomfort). Lamps of intermediate or warm colors should be used for general lighting in order to prevent or minimize glare. Reducing the luminance of the source causing the glare or changing the relative positions of the observer and the source can also reduce glare. Lamps should be shielded from direct sight by louvers or reflectors. Also, diffusing ceilings may be used in order to spread the light over a wider are